WPCl# J4 |Sk]$Wv aRחj^r 3YS4$`F8$%$i5ZQo%}н}ԡ s4ɂ=eG_KF7JR۳ @Jm4潘DLEN0J'XIԗ\ii{hLOo17>Am\hH(<ο:Q:_˪&?'ovz9Ó\Ŀ'f )TCC P>x>o~w vQ-bsxAYK7[gF#bbLZY*c]%7vIH8"o*ٮ`2+@Msd#!x?U;N@ %@ 0(@bAA 1A 1uAA^ Bw@%B%BeB 01c'C4CCC mC 0DC 1s DUb@}D 1D 0DE 1EuF 16G6G 1GDH 1YHYH 1HH 1gIgI;I)KzK AxO 0VPkP BQ D+R 0KDRR 1US 0OS dToUSV9\_;`cc#defgqm2uU>vvxy|\1:k[o>ʐ1˕` ppЧʨKƯx/3h$ؾ-=6y>=U$>+(%t? 6A4__4SZ 0V#\w m(v   wb f/"&#')x-D/o*1w27b8Y=R>V0@A [ChD EQHOJJK-P{SVxWI1\z^>_bcjdr egci\j)Mk)vrsGtvv`|H}~f]w8o7N;I ¦N`0gIJ=+h'Ϲ̺> }~jhHEw!V%{:j^Lo/&&x(Px g d2g 0D>Vh w """"&K')p*W!-x./1r1jE3678 j9v=v=>=DEPIJKK L@WX ZZ[[^`tkcefBijkoxDpbqq^q"tv'wxo{ "|/}_~d5  k+1Iz<a5{3 15+=&&ccc6\o9<MWo _+A0P'<Y~{{rWW,Y<<)vJw /^  5 m d9QQQQ=YZ]ffI[]$%%t%K,,-- Z.Z.g0+112<3 345/6l7(9 ;H=A@XADDzEVId\LOSKUCV)WV/XoZZ+\6^)U_~a4bbRcc'e$hhjrkm,nopqqtv>;|5y~\ȂȂȂȂȂȂeppnu0`U-ԞGHHw$I`mͶiicTnE RRRfWc2tYYYYYs{{{!!E TPP$     i]`````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````=============================================================================  "\\JMD0080\OLC3258010&d9 Z6Times New Roman RegularX($- -05HCEKQW]cioAutoList1I.A.I.I.I.I.I.I.3#37=CIQYag1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)怎1b Z[\Y]^D_`Dabc v'USUS.,  _  &9W%XXOpinionsoftheOfficeofLegalCounsel#Xe X%&9WI#(;3$2#  0  .3  0  %0'6{0Suite83|xckU(#$  0  237=CIOW_eI.A.1.a.(1)(a)i)a)(9 Z(Times New Roman (CEKQW]cioAutoList2A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.(Z(2of$ !  8XX88    0  (CEKQW]cioAutoList3A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. (  _&9W%XX  WhethertheSecondAmendmentSecuresanIndividualRight#Xe X%&9W+#(CEKQW]cioAutoList4A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.0uHCEKQW]cioAutoList5I.A.I.I.I.I.I.I.   (ڽCEKQW]cioAutoList6A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.0HCEKQW]cioAutoList7I.A.I.I.I.I.I.I.(CEKQW]cioAutoList8A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. 1 of$* XX*  *    48    _Ԁ_Wingfield_v.Stratford,96Eng.Rep.787,787,SayerRep.15(_K.B._Ԁ1752). of$* XX*  *    61    _ԀQuotedinMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat139. p of$* XX*  *    67    _ԀSeeBernardSchwartz,2TheBillofRights:ADocumentaryHistory665,672(1971).Wediscussthe  PennsylvaniaConvention,includingtheReportanditscritics,inPartIII.C.1,below.RegardingtheReportswide v circulation,seeid.at628;2TheDocumentaryHistoryoftheRatificationoftheConstitution617(MerrillJensen < ed.,1976)( Doc.Hist.)(note);15Doc.Hist.at710(JohnP._Kaminski_Ԁ&_Gaspare_ԀJ._Saladino_Ԁ_eds_.,1984)(note). R  -(,+ I&mage <=8C HKKKK(.3$ !USUS.,    of$* XX*  *    79    _ԀSeeEugene_Volokh_,TheCommonplaceSecondAmendment,73_N.Y.U._ԀL.Rev.793,798,80405,808  09(1998);Emerson,270F.3dat234n.32. d'dxd( $ Figure  1  Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5(:EGMSY_ekqAutoList11A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.8(( [6Block Text      of$* XX*  *    97    _Ԁ1TheDebateontheConstitution712(Bernard_Bailyn_Ԁed.,1993). of$* XX*  *    98    _Ԁ2id.at507.ForRamseysbiography,seeid.at1009. | of$* XX*  *    90    _ԀSee_Kopel_,93Mich.L.Rev.at1355( [_O]ne_ԀofthereasonsCongressguaranteedtherightofthepeople  tokeepandbeararmswassothatapopularmilitiacouldbedrawnfromthebodyofthepeople.)(footnoteomitted)L  *.L  L#*  L#XE>X * C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>9#*  *XE>X * C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>#*  *XE>X * C #XE>XXXE>Z##* XXE>y#*  *XE>X * C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>#*  *XE>X *e C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>#Thus,the_Silveira_courtsdescriptionofthemilitiaas thestatecreatedandorganizedmilitaryforce, < 312F.3dat1069,istechnicallytruebutcriticallyincomplete,becauseitignoresthecompositionofthemilitia.L  *Ԁ / of$* XX*  *    101    _ԀFederalFarmerNo.18(1788),reprintedin2TheCompleteAntiFederalist34142(HerbertJ.Storing  ed.,1981);seealsoNo.3(1787),id.at242._Publius_Ԁ(Hamilton)recognizedtheFederalFarmerlettersasamong v thebestoftheAntiFederalists.SeeFederalistNo.68,at45758.  of$* XX*  *    37    _ԀForexample,ArticleIIof*  *theArticlesofConfederation,draftedadecadebeforetheConstitution,  reservedtoeachState everypower,jurisdiction,andrightnotexpresslydelegatedtothefederalGovernment.#*  *# 1 of$* XX*  *    103    _ԀL  *10U.S.C.311(a)(2000)(includinginthemilitia allablebodiedmalesatleast17yearsofageand  ...under45yearsofage,bothcitizensandthose whohavemadeadeclarationofintentiontobecomecitizens,certainmenbetween45and64,and femalecitizensoftheUnitedStateswhoaremembersoftheNationalGuard). of$* XX*  *    111    _ԀLund,31Ga.L.Rev.at25,26. of$* XX*  *    114    _Ԁ307U.S.at17879(emphasisadded).  of$* XX*  *    115    _ԀVa.Decl.ofRights13(1776),reprintedin7Fed.andState_Consts_.at3814. of$* XX*  *    117    _ԀFederalistNo.29,at18384(A.Hamilton)(emphasesadded).   of$* XX*  *    121    _ԀU.S.Const.art.I,8,cl.15;seeid.amendV(discussingmilitiaservicein Warorpublicdanger).  of$* XX*  *    123    _ԀSeealsoMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat5053,11516,123(militiaofficersuseofdiscretionarypower  todisarm);id.at4546(disarmamentbyCharlesIIpriorto1662);id.at85(disarmamentbymilitiain1678);id.at v 103(useofmilitiabyJamesIItodisarmsuspiciouspersons);id.at105(attempteduseofmilitiain1686todisarm < byenforcinggameact);id.at31(inCivilWar);seealsoid.at9293,95(inresponseto1683RyeHouseplot; R confiscatedarmsgiventomilitia);id.at100(disarmamentbyCharlesIIinwesternEnglandearlyinreign,andin  responsetoRyeHouseplotlater).Effortstodisarmandunderminethemilitiaalsoincludedrequiringitsmembersto storetheirarmsingovernmentmagazines.Seeid.at38,7879,9697;seealsoid.at3,5,1011(discussing T  privateownershipandstoragepriortoEnglishCivilWar,andfailedplanstorequirepublicstorage).Theactionsof  j whitemilitiastowardfreedblacksintheSouthaftertheAmericanCivilWarweresimilar.SeePart_IV.C_,below.  of$* XX*  *    133    _ Cf.PlannedParenthoodv.Casey,505U.S.833,847(1992)(rejectingargumentthatthepersonal   libertythattheFourteenthAmendmentprotects encompassesnomorethanthoserightsalreadyguaranteedtothe v individualagainstfederalinterferencebytheexpressprovisionsofthefirsteightAmendments)(emphasisadded) < (citationomitted);Moorev.CityofEastCleveland,431U.S.494,502(1977)(pluralityopinion)(similar,quoting R Poev._Ullman_,367U.S.497,54243(1961)(Harlan,J.,dissenting));Johnsonv._Eisentrager_,339U.S.763,784  (1950)(describingFirst,Second,Fourth,Fifth,andSixthAmendmentsasthe civilrightsAmendments);  Robertsonv.Baldwin,165U.S.275,281(1897)(describingBillofRightsasembodying certainguarantiesand T  immunitieswhichwehadinheritedfromourEnglishancestors).Whilesomemightarguethat,asanoriginal  j matter,theFirstAmendmentsEstablishmentClause(whichmakesnoreferencetoany rightor freedom)wasanexceptiontothisrule,theSupremeCourthasheldthatittoocreatesanindividualright,applicableevenagainstStates.See_Zelman_v.SimmonsHarris,536U.S.639,678(2002)(Thomas,J.,concurring);_Everson_v.Boardof l   Ed.,330U.S.1,8(1947);David_Currie_,TheConstitutionintheSupremeCourt:TheSecondCentury33940 2   (1990). ( of$* XX*  *    135    _ԀStory,Abridgement984,at698(commencingdiscussionofFirstthroughFourth,andEighththrough  TenthAmendments).\  `&Times New Roman of$* XX*  *    142    _ԀFederalistNo.29,at185(A.Hamilton);seealsoid.No.46,at32122(J.Madison).  of$* XX*  *    143    _ԀU.S.Const.art.I,10,cl.3.SeeHoustonv.Moore,18U.S.(5Wheat.)1,52(1820)(Story,J.,  dissenting);_Va_._Ratif_.Conv.,in10Doc.Hist.at1307(remarksofJohnMarshall,June16).  of$* XX*  *    122    _Ԁ4Blackstoneat*151;e.g.,Mass.Const.pt.I,art.16(1780),reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at  1892.Similarly,theEnglishDeclarationofRights,wellknowntotheFoundingGeneration,seebelow,Part_III.A_, v chargedKingJamesIIwithhavingsoughtto subvertandextirpatethe libertiesofthiskingdombytakingseveralactions utterlyanddirectlycontrarytothe freedomofthisrealm.1W.&M.,Sess.2,c.2,1(1689). z of$* XX*  *    71    _ԀCopemanv.Gallant,24Eng.Rep.404,407,1P._Wms_.Rep.314(Ch.1716);id.at405(quotingstatute)  (emphasesadded);seeSinger,2ASutherland47.04,at220( Copeman...establishedtherulethatthepreamble v couldnotbeusedtorestricttheeffectofthewordsusedinthepurview.).In_Ryall_v._Rolle_,26Eng.Rep.107,1 < _Atkyns_ԀRep.165(Ch.1749),*  *althoughthequestionwasnotatissue#*  *#,seeid.at116(Lee,C.J.);id.at118 R (_Hardwicke_,Ch.),somejudgesvoiced*  *ԀdisagreementwithCopemansinterpretationofthatstatutebecauseofthe  great inconvenienceitwouldcausetocommercialarrangementssuchastrusts,agency,andbailment,buttheystill  recognizedthegeneralrule,seeid.at113(Parker,C.B.)#*  *#Ԁ(recognizinganothercaseholding [t]hatthepreamble T  shallnotrestraintheenactingclauseandrecognizingthatCopeman explodedthenotionofthepreambles  j governingtheenactingclause,butaddingthat ifthenotrestrainingthegeneralityoftheenactingclausewillbeattendedwithaninconvenience,thepreambleshallrestrainit);id.at118(_Hardwicke_,Ch.)(agreeingwithParker). of$* XX*  *    84    _Ԁ_Athos_,8Mod.Rep.at144. ' of$* XX*  *    70    _ԀExamplesofbothincludethestatutesdiscussedorcitedbelowinPart_III.A._ԀSee,e.g.,theMilitiaActof  1662,13&14Car.II,c.3,1,3,14,20;theGameActof1671,32&33Car.II,c.25,1,2,4,5,6,7;theActtoDisarmPapists,1W.&M.,Sess.1,c.15,1,4(1689);theBillofRights,1W.&M.,Sess.2,c.2,1,9(1689);theGameActof1692,4&5W.&M.,c.23,1,3,4,5,7,10;theactrepealingthebanonhailshot,6&7Will.III,c.13,1,3(1695);andtheGameActof1706,5Ann.,c.14,1,3,5.  of$* XX*  *    60    _ԀSee,e.g.,_Kates_,82Mich.L.Rev.at219(explainingthat,inearlycolonialstatutes, beardidgenerally  refertothecarryingofarmsbymilitiamen);St.GeorgeTucker,2BlackstonesCommentaries*40809n.1(1803; v reprint1996)( TuckersBlackstone)(discussingVirginialawexemptingfrommilitiadutythose religiously < scrupulousofbearingarms);TheDeclarationofIndependencepara.28(1776)( HehasconstrainedourfellowCitizenstakenCaptiveonthehighSeastobearArmsagainsttheircountry.).M*  *ilitiaservicewasnot,however,  limitedto militaryaction.TheConstitutionspeaksofusingthemilitia toexecutetheLawsoftheUnion,whichisdistinctfromboth _repel[ling_]Invasionsand _suppress[ing_]Insurrections.U.S.Const.art.I,8,cl.15.#*  *># Q of$* XX*  *    145    _ԀCompare9Doc.Hist.at1074(JohnP._Kaminski_Ԁ&_Gaspare_ԀJ._Saladino_Ԁ_eds_.,1990)(H.Lee,June9),  id.at1102(Randolph,June10),10id.at1273(Madison,June14),id.at130608(Marshall,June14);with9id.at v 95758,1066(PatrickHenry,June5&9),10id.at127071(GeorgeMason,June14),id.at1305(William < _Grayson_,June16).HenryLeeshouldnotbeconfusedwithhisAntiFederalistcousinRichardHenryLee. 4 of$* XX*  *    148    _Ԁ*  *_Perpich_,496U.S.at35354(footnotesomitted).#*  *#Ԁ of$* XX*  *    6    _Ԁ307U.S.174(1939). of$* XX*  *    158    _ԀMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat3639.  of$* XX*  *    159    _ԀId.at63.Seealso_Schwoerer_,Declarationat7576(describingCharlesIIsactions,including  disarmament,andnotingriseofcomplaintsfromCommonsbeginningin1668). of$* XX*  *    106    _ԀArt.I,8,cl.15. ' of$* XX*  *    178    _ԀSeeWilliamBlackstone,2CommentariesontheLawsofEngland*412n.8(WilliamDraperLewised.,  1900)(reprintingannotationofEdwardChristian).ChristiansposthumousBlackstonewaspublishedin179395,seeMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat134,210,andavailableinAmerica,see1TuckersBlackstoneat*145n.42. < Althoughthelawwasclear,somequestionedhowmuchasapracticalmattertherevisionofthegamelawshad_benefited_Ԁcommoners,asweexplaininthediscussionofthePennsylvaniaConstitutionbelowinPartIII.B.2.  of$* XX*  *    150    _ԀAsweexplainbelowinPart_III.C_,severalstateratifyingconventionsunsuccessfullyproposedsimilar  languageinsuggestedamendmentsdistinctfromthosesecuringtherighttobeararms.  of$* XX*  *    205    _ԀSeeHardy,9_Harv_._J.L._Ԁ&Pub._Poly_Ԁat590;_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat9,16,72.Soldiersseized  provincialarmoriesinCambridgeand_Charlestown_.Inresponse, twentythousandYankeespickeduptheir v musketsandheadedforBostontoconfronttheBritish.RobertA.Gross,TheMinutemenandTheirWorld55 < (1976). V of$* XX*  *    32    _ԀForasymposiumofarticlesspanningtheviews,seeTheSecondAmendmentToday:Historicaland  ContemporaryPerspectivesontheConstitutionalityofFirearmsRegulation,29N.Ky.L.Rev.643(2002),andfor v articlescriticaloftheindividualrightview,seeSymposiumontheSecondAmendment:FreshLooks,76Chi.Kent < L.Rev.3(2000).Seealso,e.g.,GarryWills,ANecessaryEvil:AHistoryofAmericanDistrustofGovernment R 20721,25660(1999);AndrewD._Herz_,GunCrazy:ConstitutionalFalseConsciousnessandDerelictionof  _Dialogic_ԀResponsibility,75_B.U._ԀL.Rev.57(1995);RichardM._Aborn_,Essay,TheBattleOvertheBradyBilland  theFutureofGunControlAdvocacy,22Fordham_Urb_._L.J._Ԁ417(1995);CarlT.Bogus,Essay,Race,Riots,and T  Guns,66S.Cal.L.Rev.1365(1993);DennisA._Henigan_,Arms,AnarchyandtheSecondAmendment,26Val.U.  j L.Rev.107(1991);WendyBrown,Comment,Guns,Cowboys,PhiladelphiaMayors,andCivicRepublicanism:  0 OnSanfordLevinsonsTheEmbarrassingSecondAmendment,99Yale_L.J._Ԁ661(1989);KeithA._Ehrman_Ԁ&    DennisA._Henigan_,TheSecondAmendmentintheTwentiethCentury:HaveYouSeenYourMilitiaLately?,15U. l   DaytonL.Rev.5(1989);SamuelFields,Guns,CrimeandtheNegligentGunOwner,10N.Ky.L.Rev.141(1982); 2   Warren_Spannaus_,StateFirearmsRegulationandtheSecondAmendment,6_Hamline_ԀL.Rev.383(1983);cf.David  H  _Yassky_,TheSecondAmendment:Structure,History,andConstitutionalChange,99Mich.L.Rev.588(2000);   DavidC.Williams,CivicRepublicanismandtheCitizenMilitia:TheTerrifyingSecondAmendment,101Yale_L.J._   551,55455(1991). of$* XX*  *    109    _ԀSee,e.g.,_Silveira_,312F.3dat106972. of$* XX*  *    147    _Ԁ18U.S.(5Wheat.)1(1820).SeePartIV.B.1,below.  A of$* XX*  *    151    _Ԁ_Silveira_v._Lockyer_,328F.3d567,580(9thCir.)(_Kleinfeld_,J.,joinedby_Kozinski_,_OScannlain_,and  T.G.Nelson,JJ.,dissentingfromdenialofrehearingenbanc),cert.denied,124S.Ct.803(2003).  of$* XX*  *    157    _ԀMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat36,38,43,4548,5053,85,100,11516,123;seealsoid.at9293,95;  LoisG._Schwoerer_,TheDeclarationofRights,1689,at76(1981)( CharlesIIhadmadeeffectiveuseofthe v militiaacts totrytosnuffoutpoliticalandreligiousdissent,disarmingindividualsandtownsandconfiscatingweapons).Hehadbegundoingsoassoonasheassumedthethrone.Aninterimactin1661approvedhisactions R andprovidedindemnitytomilitiamen.12Car.II,c.6,3(favorablyrecognizingthat diversarmshavebeenseizedandhousessearchedforarms);cf.FederalistNo.69,at465n.(A.Hamilton)(discussing1661act).  of$* XX*  *    171    _ԀSeeFederalistNo.84,at57879(A.Hamilton)(arguing thatbillsofrightsareintheirorigin,  stipulationsbetweenkingsandtheirsubjects,abridgmentsofprerogativeinfavorofprivilege,reservationsofrightsnotsurrenderedtotheprince,and [_s]uch_Ԁ...wasthedeclarationofrightspresentedbythelordsandcommonstotheprinceofOrangein1688,andafterwardsthrownintotheformofanactofparliamentcalledthebillofrights).  of$* XX*  *    113    _ԀSeebelow,Part_IV.A_,forSt.GeorgeTuckersdiscussionofasimilarpoint. % of$* XX*  *    204    _ԀL  *JohnAdams,3ADefenceoftheConstitutionsofGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica475  (1787).#*  Lҕ#L  *TheNinthCircuitselectivelyquotedthissentencetoclaimthatAdams ridiculed...anindividualrightto v personalarmsandassertedthat thegeneralavailabilityofarmswould demolisheveryconstitution,andlaythelawsprostrate,sothatlibertycanbeenjoyedbynoman!itisadissolutionofthegovernment._Silveira_,312F.3d N at1085.Intheseportions,Adamswasmerelyarguingagainstcommandofthemilitiabyprivatepersonsorlocalities,whilealsoexpresslyreiteratingtherightofarmingforprivateselfdefense.#*  LY# ) of$* XX*  *    214    _&/% *Ԁ#* %&/#ԀSee_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat2930. of$* XX*  *    154    _ԀSee1Blackstoneat*151. ^ of$* XX*  *    169    _Ԁ_Schwoerer_,Declarationat283;seeMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat11920.SeealsoJeanL.De_Lolme_,  2TheRiseandProgressoftheEnglishConstitution886(A.J.Stephensed.,1838)(1784)(Declaration expressly v ensuredtoindividualstherightof[petitionand]ofbeingprovidedwitharmsfortheirowndefence). of$* XX*  *    224    _ԀSee1MasonPapersat27475,286(editorialnotes);id.at287(finaldraft).  of$* XX*  *    172    _Ԁ_Silveira_,328F.3dat582(_Kleinfeld_,J.). of$* XX*  *    170    _Ԁ1Blackstoneat*271.  of$* XX*  *    168    _ԀLoisG._Schwoerer_,ToHoldandBearArms:TheEnglishPerspective,76Chi.KentL.Rev.27,59  (2000).Sheseemstomisunderstandtheindividualrightviewasrequiringanunlimitedright.Seeid.at56,60.  of$* XX*  *    175    __Wingfield_v.Stratford,96Eng.Rep.787,78788,SayerRep.15(_K.B._Ԁ1752)(Lee,C.J.,citingRexv.  Gardner,2StrangeRep.1098(_K.B._Ԁ1738));_Mallock_v._Eastly_,87Eng.Rep.1370,1374,7Mod.Rep.482(C.P. v 1744),respectively;seealsoPartII.B.1,above(discussinguseof keepintheseandothercases);Malcolm,To < KeepandBearat128(quotingcommentatorofearly1800sreaffirmingruleofthesecases).Inaddition,itappears R thatcourtsstrictlyinterpretedindictmentsunderthegamelaws.SeeKingv._Silcot_,87Eng.Rep.186,186n.(b),3  Mod.Rep.280(_K.B._Ԁ1690)(reportersnotefrom1793). of$* XX*  *    179    _Ԁ1Blackstoneat*121;id.at*123,124. 3 of$* XX*  *    236    _ԀStatev._Huntly_,25N.C.(3_Ired_.)418,1843WL891,at*2.*  *Anotherearlydecisionrecognizedthatthe  rightof freepeopleofcolortobeararmsmightbeabridged!butonlybecausethecourtbelievedthatthey cannotbeconsideredascitizens,oratleastnotfullcitizens,notbecauseofanyexclusionfromthemilitia(asubjectthecourtdidnotmention).#*  *$#ԀStatev.Newsom,27N.C.(5_Ired_.)250,1844WL1059,at*1,2.  of$* XX*  *    238    _ԀThiswasRichard_Caswell_,whobecamethefirstgovernor.Anothermemberofthecommitteealsohad  beenoneofthethreedelegates.See_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat2931;seealso5Fed.andState_Consts_.at2794. o of$* XX*  *    180    _ԀId.at*123.Hecontrasted relativeindividualrights, whichareincidentto[persons]asmembersof  society,andstandinginvariousrelationstoeachother.Id. | of$* XX*  *    241    _ԀSee_Vt_.Const.ch.I,10,15&18(1786),reprintedin6id.at3753(dutyofpersonalserviceand  conscientiousobjectors,speech,andarms,respectively);id.ch.II,19,at3758(militia,includingall inhabitants v ratherthanallfreemenandtheirsons);id.37,at3760(hunting);_Vt_.Const.ch.I,arts.9,13&16(1793), < reprintedinid.at376364(dutyofpersonalserviceandconscientiousobjectors,speech,andarms,respectively);id. R ch.II,22,at3768(militia);id.40,at3770(hunting). x of$* XX*  *    247    _ԀSchwartz,1BillofRightsat337.Theonlychangebetweentheirdraftandthefinalwasthedeletionof   standingbefore armies.Id.at372(draft);id.at364(deletion).\  `&Times New Roman ! of$* XX*  *    308    _ԀSee_Veit_,Creatingat39n.13;Schwartz,2BillofRightsat115354(Sen.Journal). of$* XX*  *    43    _ԀU.S.Const.art.I,8,_cls_.1516;art.II,2,cl.1. of$* XX*  *    237    _ԀSeeinfra,note239.  $` XX`  `    77    _ԀPresser,116U.S.at265;seealsoMarylandv.UnitedStates,381U.S.41,46(1965)( Fromthedaysof  theMinutemenofLexingtonandConcorduntiljustbeforeWorldWarI,thevariousmilitiasembodiedtheconcept t ofacitizenarmy....).  $` XX`  `    77    _ԀPresser,116U.S.at265;seealsoMarylandv.UnitedStates,381U.S.41,46(1965)( Fromthedaysof  theMinutemenofLexingtonandConcorduntiljustbeforeWorldWarI,thevariousmilitiasembodiedtheconcept t ofacitizenarmy....).  $` XX`  `    77    _ԀPresser,116U.S.at265;seealsoMarylandv.UnitedStates,381U.S.41,46(1965)( Fromthedaysof  theMinutemenofLexingtonandConcorduntiljustbeforeWorldWarI,thevariousmilitiasembodiedtheconcept t ofacitizenarmy....). of$* XX*  *    7    _ԀCh.757,48Stat.1236.  *Ԁ#*  #  of$* XX*  *    39    _ԀSee.,e.g.,U.S.Const.art.I,1;art.I,8;art.II,1;art.III,1;amend.X.  of$* XX*  *    309    _ԀSeeL  *_Uviller_Ԁ&Merkel,76Chi.KentL.Rev.at507(theorizingthatvoteoncommondefenseclausewas  promptedbydesiretoavoideitherredundancyortheobjectionthattheamendmentfailedtoprotectmilitiaserviceindefenseofaState,asopposedtothe commonnationaldefense).#*  Lқ#*  *Thedeletionofthetroublesomeconscientious : objectorclausecouldhavebeensimplybecauseofadesire,asvoicedintheHouse,toleavethemattertoCongresssdiscretion,#*  *<#Ԁsee,e.g.,RemarksofRep.Benson(Aug.17,1789),reprintedin_Veit_,Creatingat184,  withoutaffectingtherightonewayortheother. * of$* XX*  *    215    _ԀRichard_Caswell_,WilliamHooper,&Joseph_Hewes_, TotheCommitteesoftheSeveralTownsand  CountiesoftheProvinceofNorthCarolina,N.C.Gazette(_Newburn_),at2,col.3(July7,1775),excerptedinid.L  *at v 29.  of$* XX*  *    3    _ԀEmerson,270F.3dat219(describingintermediateview);seealso,e.g.,*  *Casesv.UnitedStates,131F.2d  916,923(1stCir.1942).#*  *#Ԁ U of$* XX*  *    129    _ԀThedutytoserveinthemilitiaandtherighttopossessorcarryweaponsforselfdefensewererelated  butdistinctincolonialAmerica.Onemighthavethelatterwithouttheformer.See_Cottrol_Ԁ&Diamond,80_Geo_. v _L.J._Ԁat32537(surveyingcoloniallawsandexplainingthedevelopmentof theviewthatthesecurityofthestatewasbestachievedthroughthearmingofallfreecitizens,regardlessofeligibilityformilitiaservice);seealsoPart R II.B.1,above(discussingrightto keeparmsforprivatepurposes).  of$* XX*  *    258    _ԀSee,e.g.,FederalistNo.46,at32122(J.Madison)(contrasting*  *Ԁthe advantageofbeingarmed,which  theAmericanspossess,withthecircumstancesin severalkingdomsofEurope...[where]thegovernmentsareafraidtotrustthepeoplewitharms);#*  *#AnAmericanCitizenIV:OntheFederalGovernment(Tench_Coxe_)(1787), < reprintedin13Doc.Hist.L  *Ԁat433(JohnP._Kaminski_Ԁ&_Gaspare_ԀJ._Saladino_Ԁ_eds_.,1981)#*  LҪ#(arguingthat,iftyranny R threatened,the friendstoliberty...usingthosearmswhichProvidencehasputintotheirhands,willmakea  solemnappealtothepowerabove); ACitizenofAmerica,AnExaminationIntotheLeadingPrinciplesofthe  FederalConstitution(NoahWebster)(1787),reprintedin1DebateontheConst.at155( *  *Beforeastandingarmy T  canrulethepeoplemustbedisarmed;astheyareinalmosteverykingdominEurope.ThesupremepowerinAmericacannotenforceunjustlawsbythesword;becausethewholebodyofthepeoplearearmed)#*  *r#.  I of$* XX*  *    44    _ԀThelastquotationisfromtheConstitutionalConventionsresolutiontransmittingtheproposed  ConstitutiontotheCongress.2TheRecordsoftheFederalConventionof1787,at665(Max_Farrand_Ԁed.,rev.ed. v 1966). Thisdistinctionbetweenthe peopleandthegovernmentiswhytheFoundersinsistedthattheConstitution < beratifiedbypopularlyelectedspecialconventionsratherthanbythestategovernments,toensureitssupremacyoverthosegovernments.SeeTheFederalistNo.39,at25354(J.Madison)(JacobE.Cooke,ed.1961);James  Madison,NotesofDebatesintheFederalConventionof1787,at70(1987)(remarksofMadison,June5);id.at  34849(remarksofGeorgeMasonandEdmundRandolph,July23);id.at35253(remarksofMadison).  of$* XX*  *    217    _Ԁ*  *JohnAdams,ThoughtsonGovernment(Apr.1776),reprintedin4id.at91.Thispamphlet,writtenfor  politicalleadersinNorthCarolina,Virginia,andNewJersey,waswidelyreprintedanddiscussedforseveralyears.Seeid.at65,6872(note).#*  *#(.3$ !USUS.,    of$* XX*  *    108    _Ԁ307U.S.at179(emphasesadded);seeid.at17982(collectinghistoricalsupport);seePresserv.  Illinois,116U.S.252,265(1886)( Itisundoubtedlytruethatallcitizenscapableofbearingarmsconstitutethe v reservedmilitaryforceorreservemilitiaoftheUnitedStatesaswellasoftheStates.);Marylandv.UnitedStates, < 381U.S.41,46(1965)(describingpreWorldWarImilitiaas acitizenarmy)*  *XE>X *j  C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>#*  *XE>X *k  C #* XXE>f##*  *G#*  *XE>X *l  C #XE>XXXE>##* XXE>#. of$* XX*  *    104    _ԀWebster,AmericanDictionary(_unpaginated_)(emphasisadded).  of$* XX*  *    17    _Ԁ131F.2d261,266(3dCir.1942),_revd_Ԁonothergrounds,319U.S.463(1943). of$* XX*  *    152    _ԀLovingv.UnitedStates,517U.S.748,766(1996). R of$* XX*  *    83    _ԀMadison,NotesofDebatesat639(Sept.14).Masonsproposalwasdefeated,apparentlyontheground  thatitimproperlyimpugnedsoldiers.Id.at63940. m of$* XX*  *    196    _ԀUnitedStatesv.Miller,307U.S.174,17980(1939)(internalquotationmarksomitted).See_Kates_,82  Mich.L.Rev.L  *Ԁat21516#*  LV#Ԁ( Withslightvariations,thedifferentcoloniesimposedadutytokeeparmsandtomuster v occasionallyfordrilluponvirtuallyeveryablebodiedwhitemanbetweentheageofmajorityandadesignatedcutoffage.Moreover,thedutytokeeparmsappliedtoeveryhousehold,notjusttothosecontainingpersonssubjectto R militiaservice.Thus,theoveragedandseamen,whowereexemptfrommilitiaservice,wererequiredtokeeparmsforlawenforcementandforthedefenseoftheirhomesfromcriminalsorforeignenemies.)L  *(footnotesomitted)#*  L#.In  Virginia, Everyablebodiedfreeman,betweentheagesof16and50,isenrolledinthemilitia....Thelaw T  requireseverymilitiamantoprovidehimselfwiththearmsusualintheregularservice.Thatrequirement wasalwaysindifferentlycompliedwith,andthemilitiasarmswere frequentlycalledfortoarmtheregulars,sothat inthelowerpartsofthecountrytheyareentirelydisarmed.But [_i]n_Ԁthemiddlecountryafourthorfifthpartof     themmayhavesuch_firelocks_Ԁastheyhadprovidedtodestroythenoxiousanimalswhichinfesttheirfarms;andonthewesternsideoftheBlue[_R]idge_Ԁtheyaregenerallyarmedwithrifles.ThomasJefferson,NotesontheStateof  Virginia88(William_Peden_Ԁed.,1954).Formoreregardingthemilitia,seeabove,PartII.C.24. of$* XX*  *    57    _ԀJohnson,Dictionary(_unpaginated_).  of$* XX*  *    51    _Ԁ4Blackstoneat*56;seeid.(personbarredfrom keepingarmsinhishouse).See1W.&M.,Sess.1,  c.15,4(1689)( nopapist...shallormayhaveorkeepinhishouse,orelsewhere,orinthepossessionofanyotherpersontohisuse,orathisdisposition,anyarms,weapons,gunpowder,orammunition).  of$* XX*  *    153    _Robertsonv.Baldwin,165U.S.275,281(1897),discussedfurtherbelowinPart_IV.D._Ԁ  of$* XX*  *    295    _ԀId.at6,10203;seeL  *LetterfromMadisontoWilsonCaryNicholas(Aug.2,1789),inid.at271  (referringto theconcordofthecommittee);LetterfromRogerShermantoHenryGibbs(Aug.4,1789),inid. v (anothercommitteemember,predictingthatcommitteesproposals willprobablybeharmless&SatisfactorytothosewhoarefondofBillsofrights,althoughnotinghisdesiretoplacethemattheendoftheConstitution).#*  Lҹ#L  *  of$* XX*  *    30    _ԀSee_Hickman_,81F.3dat99103;Thomasv.MembersofCityCouncilofPortland,730F.2d41,42(1st  Cir.1984)(per_curiam_).Courtshaverecognizedthatsuchholdingsalsocouldbeconsistentwithanindividual v rightview.SeeParker,362F.3dat128586(Kelly,J.,concurring)(arguingforupholdingconvictiononnarrower < groundthatcaseinvolvedreasonablerestrictiononconcealedweapons,andcriticizingcircuitcourts,ininterpretingSecondAmendment,forignoring theuniversaladmonitiontodecideconstitutionalissuesnarrowly);PartIV.B.2,below(discussingcasesrecognizingindividualrightbutrejectingrighttocarryconcealedweapons).  of$* XX*  *    5    _ԀMemorandumforUnitedStatesAttorneysfromtheAttorneyGeneral,Re:UnitedStatesv.Emerson  (Nov.9,2001)(quotingEmerson,270F.3dat260),reprintedinBrieffortheUnitedStatesinOpposition,app., v Emersonv.UnitedStates,536U.S.907(2002)(denyingcertiorari).YouaddedthattheDepartmentofJustice can < andwillcontinuetodefendvigorouslytheconstitutionality,undertheSecondAmendment,ofallexistingfederalfirearmslaws. m of$* XX*  *    310    _ԀOnecouldarguethatthedefinitionwasconsideredsuperfluous.SeeSchwartz,2BillofRightsat1145  (observingthatSenateinitsrevisionsoftheHouseproposalsgenerally*  * tighten[ed]upthelanguageoftheHouse v version,strikingoutsurpluswordingandprovisions.)#*  *f#;PartII.C.24(discussingmeaningof Militiaatthetime). X of$* XX*  *    225    _Ԁ*  *Delaware,Maryland,andNewHampshireadaptedVirginiaslanguage,omittingdefinitionofthe  militiaandchanging freestateto freegovernmentwhileretainingtheimplicitconnectionbetween awellregulatedmilitiaandtheavoidanceofstandingarmiesandmilitaryinsubordination.#*  *#ԀSeeDel.Decl.ofRights < 1820(1776),reprintedin5FoundersConst.at5,6;Md.Decl.ofRights2527(1776),reprintedin3Fed.and R State_Consts_.at1688;N.H.Const.pt.I,arts.2426(1784),reprintedin4Fed.andState_Consts_.at2456.The  DelawareConstitutionalsospeciallyprovidedthat [_t]o_Ԁpreventanyviolenceorforcebeingusedat...elections,nopersonshallcomearmedtoanyofthem,andnomusterofthemilitiashallbemadeonthatday.Del.Const.art.XXVIII(1776),reprintedin1Fed.andState_Consts_.at567.  of$* XX*  *    197    _ԀSeeMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat139(quotingcolonialstatutesfromRhodeIsland,Virginia,and  Georgia);_Kates_,82Mich.L.Rev.at216(discussingGeorgialaw);id.at240( [_T]he_ԀEnglishGameActs...had v neverbeenapartofthecoloniallaw);L  *5TuckersBlackstoneat*175n.16(describinggamelawsofVirginia, < limitedtoprohibitingtrespassandconversionandestablishinghuntingseasonfordeer)#*  L#. % of$* XX*  *    318    _Ԁ*  *Andevenifonebelieves,contrarytothehistoricalrecord,thatAntiFederalistsconcernsaboutthe  militiawereresolvedintheirfavor,theAntiFederalistsinsistenceonthesuperiorityofacitizenmilitiatoaselectmilitia,notedatthebeginningofPart_III.C_,wouldleadtotheunderstandingoftheAmendmentsprefatoryclausethatwesetoutinPart_II.C_,anunderstandingthatis,asweexplained,fullyconsistentwiththeindividualrightviewoftheSecondAmendment.#*  *#  of$* XX*  *    1    _ԀSee,e.g.,UnitedStatesv.Emerson,270F.3d203,220,260(5thCir.2001).  of$* XX*  *    91    _ԀOntheformerdistinction,seeU.S.Const.art.I,8,_cls_.1216;art.I,10,cl.3;art.II,2,cl.1;  amend.V;ArticlesofConfed.art.VI*  *(contrastinga bodyofforceswith awellregulatedanddisciplinedmilitia, v sufficientlyarmedandaccoutered#*  *k#.);AuthorityofPresidenttoSendMilitiaIntoaForeignCountry,29Op._Atty_ < Gen.322,322(1912)(_Wickersham_,A.G.)*  *( [_T]he_Ԁmilitiahasalwaysbeenconsideredandtreatedasamilitarybody R quitedistinctanddifferentfromtheRegularorstandingarmy.).#*  *#  of$* XX*  *    49    _ԀKingv._Silcot_,87Eng.Rep.186,186,3Mod.Rep.280(_K.B._Ԁ1690)(italicsomitted)(interpreting33  Hen.VIII,c.6(1541),andquashingindictmentbecauseitdidnotspecificallyallegethatdefendantsincomewasinsufficientwhenhekeptthegun).  of$* XX*  *    46    _Ԁ2StrangeRep.1098,1098(applying5Ann.,c.14(1706));seeRexv.Gardner,87Eng.Rep.1240,7  Mod.Rep.279(_K.B._Ԁ1739)(apparentlylatercase,butsimilar);id.at1241(defendant,arguingthat tochargeonly v thathekeptagunisimproper,foritincludeseverymanthatkeepsagun,andthatgunsarekept forthedefenceofamanshouse);id.(Lee,C.J.)(wordsofstatute donotextendtoprohibitamanfromkeepingagunforhis R necessarydefence);id.(_Probyn_,J.)( farmersaregenerallyobligedtokeepagun,andarenomorewithintheAct  fordoingsothantheyareforkeepingacabbagenet). n of$* XX*  *    78    _N.H.Const.art.I,17(1784),reprintedinFrancisNewtonThorpe,4TheFederalandState  Constitutions,ColonialCharters,andOtherOrganicLaws2455(1909;reprint1993).  of$* XX*  *    335    _ԀJosephStory,3CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates1890,at746n.1(1833;reprint  1991). InUnitedStatesv.Miller,307U.S.174,182n.3(1939),theSupremeCourtincludedthispassage(froma v lateredition)inastringcitation. e of$* XX*  *    94    _ԀId.at515(Aug.23).JohnAdamsalsopraisedamilitiaofthewholepeople,asopposedtoaselect  band,inworksthathepublishedin1776and1787.Seebelow,PartIII.B.1. m of$* XX*  *    72    _ԀKingv._Athos_,8Mod.Rep.136,144(_K.B._Ԁ1723).Seeid.(_Fortescue_,J.)( [_I]t_Ԁmustbeadmitted,thata  preamblemaybeagoodexpositorofastatute;butwhatwasofferedontheothersideisnotproperlyapreamble,butonly_introductive_Ԁtoanenactingpartofastatute:besides...preamblesarenomorethanrecitalsofinconveniences,whichdonotexcludeanyothertowhicharemedyisgivenbytheenactingpart.);_Kinaston_v. R Clark,26Eng.Rep.526,527,2_Atkyns_ԀRep.204(Ch.1741)( Therearemanycaseswheretheenactingpartina  statuteextendsfurtherthanthepreambleevenincriminalmatters....).  of$* XX*  *    252    _ԀRobertson,165U.S.at281(discussingBillofRightsingeneral);see_Silveira_,328F.3dat584  (_Kleinfeld_,J.)( TheSecondAmendmentwasnotnovel,butrathercodifiedandexpandeduponlongestablishedprinciples.). X of$* XX*  *    228    _Ԁ5FedandState_Consts_.at3083.*  *ԀSuchpersonalservicewouldbedifficultifonecouldnotownprivate  arms.#*  *#Thisdutymayhavebeenbroaderthantheobligationofmilitiaduty,perhapsincludingthepossecomitatus. v SeegenerallyFederalistNo.29,at18283(A.Hamilton).NewHampshiresconstitution,whilepraisingthewell < regulatedmilitia,recognizedthisdutyseparately,N.H.Const.pt.I,arts.1213,reprintedin4Fed.andState R _Consts_.at2455,although*  *ԀNewYorksconnectedthetwo,N.Y.Const.#*  *g#*  *40(1777),reprintedin5id.at2637.#*  *# of$* XX*  *    226    _ԀReprintedin5Fed.andState_Consts_.at3083.  of$* XX*  *    85    _ԀTheNinthCircuitin_Silveira_providedonlyoneparagraphontheproperrelationshipbetweenapreface  andoperativelanguage,concludingthatthelattermustberead toimplementthepolicyoftheformer.See312 v F.3dat1075. L of$* XX*  *    230    _ԀId.43,reprintedin5Fed.andState_Consts_.L  *Ԁat3091.#*  L#Ԁ  of$* XX*  *    210    _Ԁ1JournalsofCongress137(July6,1775)(1800);see_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat1315;Hardy,9  _Harv_._J.L._Ԁ&Pub._Poly_Ԁat591.  of$* XX*  *    344    _Ԁ12Ky.(2Litt.)90,1822WL1085.Thedissentingjudgedidnotissueanopinion.Seeid.at*4.  of$* XX*  *    82    _ԀCreatingtheBillofRights:TheDocumentaryRecordfromtheFirstFederalCongress12(HelenE.  _Veit_Ԁet.al._eds_.,1991)(emphasisadded).  of$* XX*  *    112    _ԀSee_Silveira_v._Lockyer_,328F.3d567,579(9thCir.)(_Kleinfeld_,J.,joinedby_Kozinski_,_OScannlain_,  andT.G.Nelson,JJ.,dissentingfromdenialofrehearingenbanc)( Thepanelseemstoimaginethatawell v regulatedmilitiaisapeopledisarmeduntilthegovernmentputsgunsintheirhandsaftersummoningthemtoservice.),cert.denied,124S.Ct.803(2003). G of$* XX*  *    119    _ԀFed.FarmerNo.3,reprintedin2CompleteAntiFed.at242;Fed.FarmerNo.18,reprintedinid.at  342(emphasesadded). of$* XX*  *    235    _ԀId. of$* XX*  *    89    _Ԁ_Athos_,8Mod.Rep.at144.  of$* XX*  *    130    _Ԁ1Blackstoneat*144.Blackstonealsodescribedthefundamental rightofpersonalsecurityas  includingprotectionagainst lossoflimb,soastoguardamansability toprotecthimselffromexternalinjuriesinastateofnature,andcondemnedanydestructionoflimbsas amanifestbreachofcivilliberty,id.at*129, < 130;andhesetoutthebasiccommonlawruleofselfdefense, theprimarylawofnature,bywhichitislawfulforaperson forciblyattackedinhispersonorproperty...torepelforcebyforcewithoutbeingliableforbreachofthepeaceoraresultinghomicide,3id.at*34.Theimportanceofthisrightofselfdefensewasreinforcedbythe  absenceofanyconstitutionaldutyofgovernmenttodefendcitizenslives,liberty,orproperty.See_DeShaney_v. T  _Winnebago_ԀCountySoc._Servs_.Dept.,489U.S.189,19597(1989). # of$* XX*  *    95    _ԀFederalistNo.46,L  *at321(J.Madison).Thepopulationofallwhitemalesaged16andoverinthe1790  censuswas813,298,makingMadisonsnumberafairapproximationofthecitizenmilitia.SeeU.S.Dept.of v Commerce,BureauoftheCensus,1HistoricalStatisticsoftheUnitedStates16(1975). q of$* XX*  *    131    _ԀJohnLocke,SecondTreatiseofGovernment1819,at1213(RichardH.Coxed.,1982)(1689);see  alsoid.20410,at12629(similar).BlackstoneandLockedisagreedontheexactscopeoftherightofself v defense.4Blackstoneat*18182;seealso1id.at*251.Lockewas,afterBlackstoneand_Montesquieu_,thewriter < whomAmericanpoliticalwritersoftheFoundingcitedmost.Malcolm,ToKeepandBearat142&214n.44.His R thinkingisparticularlyevidentintheDeclarationofIndependence.Seealso2TuckersBlackstoneat*161&n.25. of$* XX*  *    76    _ԀJacobsonv.Massachusetts,197U.S.11,22(1905).   of$* XX*  *    198    _ԀSee_Cottrol_Ԁ&Diamond,80_Geo_._L.J._Ԁat32327(notingthat thetraditionalEnglishrightbecame a  muchbroaderAmericanoneaspartof amoregenerallesseningofclass,religious,andethnicdistinctionsamongwhitesincolonialAmerica,butthat thelawwasmuchmoreambivalentwithrespecttoblacks;surveyingvaryingcoloniallawsregardingrightofblackstocarryweaponsorkeepthemintheirhomes,andnotingusualexclusionfrommilitiaduty,exceptin timesofcrisis);Malcolm,ToKeepandBearat14041( Thesecondgroup[after  Indians]forbiddentopossessweaponswereblackslaves,withrestrictionssometimesextendedtofreeblacks....Northerncolonieswereambivalentaboutblackspossessingfirearms;surveyingcoloniallawsanddrawingparalleltoEnglandsambivalenttreatmentofrightofRomanCatholicstohavearms). ? of$* XX*  *    92    _ԀSeeMalcolm,ToKeepandBearat125(discussingconcernsofEnglishWhigsaftertheEnglish  Revolutionof16881689tomaintainacitizensmilitiaasopposedtoaselectone);id.at9597,103,105 v (discussingpurgesandselectivedisarmamentofmilitiabyCharlesIIandJamesII);id.at63(discussingCharles < IIsselectmilitia). of$* XX*  *    156    _13&14Car.II,c.3,14.  of$* XX*  *    307    _ԀTheSenatecombinedprovisions(suchasincreatingwhatbecametheFirstandFifthAmendments)and  rejectedHouseprovisionsregulatingappealstotheSupremeCourt;applyingreligion,speech,press,andcriminaljuryprotectionstotheStates;andprohibitingviolationsoftheseparationofpowers.SeeSchwartz,2BillofRights < at114547(summarizingchanges);compare_Veit_,Creatingat3741(Houseproposals),withid.at4749(Senate). | of$* XX*  *    100    _Ԁ10Doc.Hist.at1312(JohnP._Kaminski_Ԁ&_Gaspare_ԀJ._Saladino_Ԁ_eds_.,1993)(June16,1788). of$* XX*  *    86    _ԀUnitedStatesv.Miller,307U.S.174,178(1939). of$* XX*  *    149    _Ԁ312F.3dat1081n.43. h of$* XX*  *    232    _ԀPa.Const.art.IX,20&21,reprintedin5Fed.andState_Consts_.at3101.Section22addressed  standingarmiesandciviliancontrolofthemilitary.Kentucky,admittedin1791asthefifteenthstate,copiedthislanguageontherightverbatim.SeeKy.Const.art.XII,23(1792),reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1275.  of$* XX*  *    233    _ԀPa.Const.art.VI,2,reprintedin5Fed.andState_Consts_.at3099.Kentuckyalsocopiedthis  provision.SeeKy.Const.art.VI,2,reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1271. of$* XX*  *    234    _ԀReprintedin5Fed.andState_Consts_.at2788. of$* XX*  *    126    _ԀFed.FarmerNo.18,reprintedin2CompleteAntiFed.at34142.  of$* XX*  *    177    _Ԁ LegalityoftheLondonMilitaryFootAssociation(July24,1780),reprintedinWilliam_Blizard_,  DesultoryReflectionsonPolice:WithanEssayontheMeansofPreventingCrimesandAmendingCriminals59, v 5960(1785)(italicsomitted).Forbackground,seePartII.B.2above.TheRecorderfoundit amatterofsome < difficultytodefinethepreciselimitsandextentoftherightsofthepeopleofthisrealmtobeararms,andtoinstructthemselvesintheuseofthem,collectively.Id.at59.Attheveryleast,heopined,suchagroupneededto(1)have  a lawful professedpurposeandobject,(2) demeanthemselvesinapeaceableandorderlymannerconsistentwiththatpurpose,(3)notassembleinnumbersthat manifestlyandgreatlyexceedthatpurpose;and(4)not actwithouttheauthorityofthecivilmagistrateexcepttosuppress sudden,violent,andfeloniousbreachesofthepeace.Id.at62(italicsomitted).SeealsoWilliamHawkins,1ATreatiseonthePleasoftheCrownch.63,at  0 136,10(1724;reprint1972)(notinglegalityofperson _arm[ing_]himselftosuppressdangerousRioters,Rebels,orEnemiesand _endeavour[ing_]tosuppressorresistsuchDisturbersofthePeaceorQuietoftheRealm);id.ch. l   65,at161,21(notingrighttodosowhenassistingJusticeofPeaceagainstriot).  of$* XX*  *    347    _ԀSeeKy.Const.art.XIII,25(1850),reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1314. of$* XX*  *    365    _ԀId.  of$* XX*  *    136    _ԀSee4Blackstoneat*152_n.a_;JohnO._McGinnis_,TheOnceandFuturePropertyBasedVisionofthe  FirstAmendment,>*  *63U.Chi.L.Rev.#*  >*g#49,9294(1996). of$* XX*  *    371    _Ԁ21Tenn.(2Hum.)154,1840WL1554. u of$* XX*  *    221    _Ԁ*  *ThefirstconstitutionsofNewJersey,SouthCarolina,Georgia,andNewYorkdidnotincludeseparate  billsofrights.Theirconstitutionsdidprotectafewrights,butdidnotincludetherighttoarmsorgeneralstatementsregardingthemilitia.SeeBernardSchwartz,1TheBillofRights:ADocumentaryHistory256(1971)#*  *#*  * < (N.J.1776);id.at291(Ga.1777);id.at301(N.Y.1777);id.at325(S.C.1778).Georgiadidprovideforforminga R militiabattalioninanycountywith twohundredandfiftymen,andupwards,liabletobeararms,id.at297,and  NewYorkdeclaredthedutyofalltoprovidepersonalservicetoprotectsociety,seeid.at312#*  *>#*  *,muchasthe  PennsylvaniaDeclaration,discussedbelow,did.ConnecticutandRhodeIslanddidnotadoptnewconstitutions.Id. T  at289.#*  *,#*  *Ԁ#*  *2# of$* XX*  *    52    _Ԁ_Kates_,82Mich.L.Rev.at215,219.  of$* XX*  *    2    _ԀSee,e.g.,_Silveira_v._Lockyer_,312F.3d1052,106061,108687(9thCir.2002),cert.denied,124S.Ct.  803(2003).  of$* XX*  *    298    _Ԁ FromtheBoston_Indep_.Chronicle,Philadelphia_Indep_.Gazetteer2(Aug.20,1789),excerptedin  _Halbrook_,L  *RighttoBearat45.  of$* XX*  *    137    _ԀCompare1Blackstoneat*138( Thethirdabsoluteright,inherentineveryEnglishman,isthatof  property:whichconsistsinthefreeuse,enjoyment,anddisposalofallhisacquisitions,withoutanycontrolor v diminution,saveonlybythelawsoftheland.)(emphasisadded),withid.at*144(recognizing therightofhaving < andusingarms)(emphasisadded);seeabove,PartII.B.1(discussingEnglishcasesin1700sapprovingthe R  keepingofarmsfordefenseofonesselfandhome). \ of$* XX*  *    208    _ԀHardy,9_Harv_._J.L._Ԁ&Pub._Poly_Ԁat59091;Malcolm,ToKeepandBearat14546. S of$* XX*  *    239    _Ԁ_Vt_.Const.ch.I,15,reprintedin6Fed.andState_Consts_.at3741.L  *ԀTheconstitutionalsoasserted  independencefromNewYork.Id.at373839(preamble);see#*  L*#Ԁ_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat37( Recognitionof v bearingarmstodefendthestatewasmoreradicalthanselfdefense,sinceitjustifiedactionbyarmedprivatecitizenstodefendanincipientstatefromtheconstitutedauthoritiesofbothNewYorkandGreatBritain.).L  *ԀThe R FirstCongressadmittedVermontasthefourteenthState,seeActofFeb.18,1791,1Stat.191,intimeforittoratify  theBillofRights,seeSchwartz,2BillofRightsat120203.  of$* XX*  *    245    _ԀMass.Const.pt.I,art.19,reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1892.Anearlydecisionofthe  Statessupremecourt,interpretingtheDeclarationsprotectionoftheindividuals libertyofthepressasnotprotectingcommonlawlibel,drewaparallelto therighttokeepfirearms,whichdoesnotprotecthimwhousesthemforannoyanceordestruction.Commonwealthv._Blanding_,20Mass.304,338(1825).Whetherthecourthad R inmindArticle17ortherightfromEnglandisunclear,butineithercaseitrecognizedarightofindividualstokeep   arms.  of$* XX*  *    242    _ԀReprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1892.L  * of$* XX*  *    376    _ԀId.(quoting_Aymette_,1840WL1554,at*5).  of$* XX*  *    259    _ԀJohnMarshall,forexample,providedastandardanalysis: Thetruthis,thatwhenpowerisgivento  theGeneralLegislature,ifitwasintheStateLegislaturesbefore,bothshallexerciseit;unlesstherebeanincompatibilityintheexercisebyone,tothatbytheother;ornegativewordsprecludingtheStateGovernmentsfromit.Buttherearenonegativewordshere.ItreststhereforewiththeStates._Va_._Ratif_.Conv.,in10Doc.Hist. R at1307(June16). . of$* XX*  *    47    _Ԁ_Mallock_v._Eastly_,87Eng.Rep.1370,1374,7Mod.Rep.482(C.P.1744). e of$* XX*  *    296    _ԀSeeid.at30.TheseparateplacementofwhatwouldbecometheTenthAmendmentremained  unchanged,andMadisonsotherproposals,notedabove,alsoremainedseparate. of$* XX*  *    278    _ԀId.  of$* XX*  *    144    _ԀSeeStory,Abridgement593,at425;_Va_._Ratif_.Conv.,in10Doc.Hist.at1304,1311(remarksof  JamesMadison,June16);id.at130607(remarksofJohnMarshall,same). 1 of$* XX*  *    265    _ԀId.at67475,681.SouthCarolinaratifiedinMay1788withoutproposinganyrelevantamendments.  Seeid.at739,75657. of$* XX*  *    268    _ԀId.at758.SeeU.S.Const.art.VII.  of$* XX*  *    377    _Ԁ1840WL1554,at*3;seeid.at*2.AsnotedaboveinPartIII.B.2,indiscussingtheMassachusetts  DeclarationofRights,thephrase commondefenseisnotnecessarilyinconsistentwitharighttobeararmsforprivatepurposes. of$* XX*  *    250    _ԀU.S.Const.art.I,8,_cls_.15&16,andart.II,2,cl.1.TheNinthCircuitclaimsthattherewas   disagreementamongthedelegatesoverwhetherCongressspowertoarmthemilitias shouldbeexclusiveorconcurrentwiththeStates._Silveira_,312F.3dat1079.Butthecourtonlycites_Perpich_Ԁv.DepartmentofDefense, < 496U.S.334,340(1990),whichdoesnotsupportthisclaim;nordothedebatesoftheConvention,wherethefocuswasontheextentofanyfederalauthoritytoestablishuniformdisciplineandregulationofthemilitia(includingprovidingforarms),notonwhethertheStateswouldretainconcurrentauthorityinareaswherefederalpowerwasgranted.Forthetwochiefdebates,seeMadison,NotesofDebatesat478,48385(Aug.18);id.at51216(Aug. T  23).Similarly,theThirdCircuithascited,insupportofthecollectiverightview,astatementbyRogerSherman  j thatStatesshouldretainpowertousetheirmilitiasforinternalneeds.L  *SeeUnitedStatesv.Tot,131F.2d261,266  0 (1942),#*  Lb#_revd_Ԁonothergrounds,319U.S.463(1943)L  *Ԁ(citing5ElliotsDebates445(2ded.1901)).Wefailtosee    howthisstatementsupportsthatview,particularlygiventhatnooneappearstohavedisagreedwithSherman;thatheserved#*  LU#onthecommitteethatdraftedwhatbecamethefinalversionofArticleI,Section8,Clause16,Notesof 0   DebatesL  *Ԁat480,485(Aug.18);49495(Aug.21),andgenerallysupporteditscompromise,id.at51314;andthathe  F  sawnoneedforamendments,seeACountrymanNo.2(1787),reprintedin14Doc.Hist.at172(JohnP._Kaminski_   &_Gaspare_ԀJ._Saladino_Ԁ_eds_.,1983);ACountrymanNo.3(1787),reprintedinid.at296;ACitizenofNewHaven   (1789),reprintedin#*  L#CreatingtheBillofRights:TheDocumentaryRecordfromtheFirstFederalCongress220 D  (HelenE._Veit_Ԁet.al._eds_.,1991)( _Veit_,Creating)L  *.#*  LҮ #Ԁ  of$* XX*  *    382    _ԀSeeid.at*4( thecitizensmaybear[arms]forthecommondefence,but theLegislaturemayprohibit  suchmannerofwearingaswouldneverberesortedtobypersonsengagedinthecommondefence)(emphasisadded). D of$* XX*  *    63    _ԀThesearecollected,throughtheMichiganConstitutionof1835,inEmerson,270F.3dat230n.29.We  discussthePennsylvaniaandVermontconstitutionsbelowinPartIII.B.2.Foran1822judicialinterpretationconfirmingtheplainmeaningoftheKentuckyprovisionasgrantinganindividualright,seebelow,PartIV.B.1.RegardingratificationoftheBillofRights,seebelow,PartIII.C.2.  of$* XX*  *    65    _ԀThisessaybyTench_Coxe_ԀisdiscussedbelowinPartIII.C.2.   of$* XX*  *    66    _ԀJosephStory,CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates980,at695(RonaldD.Rotunda  &JohnE.Nowak_eds_.,1987)(1833)( Abridgement).TheEnglishrightisdiscussedbelowinPart_III.A._Ԁ  of$* XX*  *    346    _Ԁ*  *ThefirstcourttodepartfromBlisssholding,theIndianaSupremeCourtelevenyearslaterinStatev.  Mitchell,#*  *#3_Blackf_.229,1833WL2617,at*1,*  *didnotciteitsneighboringcourtorotherwiseexplainitself,the v entireopinionbeingasfollows: Itwasheldinthiscase,thatthestatuteof1831,prohibitingallpersons,except < travelers,fromwearingorcarryingconcealedweapons,isnotunconstitutional.#*  *#ԀWediscussthelaterantebellum R casesinthenextsubpart.  of$* XX*  *    209    _ԀHardy,9_Harv_._J.L._Ԁ&Pub._Poly_ԀL  *at592;_Halbrook_,RighttoBearat16. ] of$* XX*  *    38    _ԀInaddition,theCopyrightandPatentClauseauthorizesCongresstograntan exclusiveRightto  authorsandinventorsforalimitedtime.U.S.Const.art.I,8,cl.8. 3 of$* XX*  *    74    _ԀKent,1Commentariesat516.SeeMillsv.Wilkins,87Eng.Rep.822,82223,6Mod.Rep.62(Q.B.  1703)( [_T]he_Ԁtitleisnotthelaw,butthenameordescriptiongiventoitbythemakers:justasthepreambleofastatuteisnopartthereof,butcontainsgenerallythemotivesorinducementsthereof.);seealsoSinger,2A < Sutherland47.04,at22122;id.at22425( Thepreamblecanneitherlimitnorextendthemeaningofastatute R whichisclear.Similarly,itcannotbeusedtocreatedoubtoruncertainty.). of$* XX*  *    26    _ԀPub.L.No.90351,82Stat.197.  of$* XX*  *    256    _ԀFed.FarmerNo.18(1788),reprintedin2CompleteAntiFedat342;_Va_._Ratif_.Conv.,in10Doc.Hist.  at1276(remarksofHenry,June14,1788). of$* XX*  *    283    _ԀSeeabove,PartIII.B.2,atnote225(discussingdifferencesfromVirginiaDeclaration).  of$* XX*  *    19    _ԀRegardingviolentfelons,althoughthecaseinvolvedpossession,thecourtreliedonauthorityfor  regulatingthebearingofarms(banningcarryingweaponsconcealedortotheterrorofthepeople).Formoreon v pointauthority,seeproposalsmadeduringtheratifyingconventions,discussedbelowinPartIII.C.1,andEmerson, < 270F.3dat226n.21;cf.Lewis,445U.S.at65n.8(rejectingequalprotectionchallengetoprohibitionoffelon R possessingafirearm);Richardsonv.Ramirez,418U.S.24,5355(1974)(holdingconstitutionalthe  disenfranchisementofconvictedfelonswhohadcompletedtheirsentencesandparoles). of$* XX*  *    415    _ԀId.at2765(Sen.Howard).  of$* XX*  *    201    _ԀSamuelAdams,BostonGazette(Feb.27,1769),reprintedin1TheFoundersConstitution90(Philip  B._Kurland_Ԁ&RalphLerner_eds_.,1987).Adamsquoted1Blackstoneat*14344&144. of$* XX*  *    416    _ԀSee_Halbrook_,Freedmenat36(collectingexcerpts).  of$* XX*  *    54    _ԀCommonwealthv._Blanding_,20Mass.(3Pick.)304,338(1825). s of$* XX*  *    110    _Ԁ_Aristocrotis_,TheGovernmentofNatureDelineated,orAnExactPictureoftheNewFederal  Constitution(1788),reprintedin3CompleteAntiFed.at202. v of$* XX*  *    418    _ԀSection1oftheCivilRightsActdeclaresallthosebornintheUnitedStatestobecitizens,grants the  sameright,ineveryStateandTerritoryintheUnitedStates...asisenjoyedbywhitecitizenswithregardtocertainenumeratedaspectsofproperty,contracting,andlawsuits,andguarantees fullandequalbenefitofalllawsandproceedingsforthesecurityofpersonandproperty.14Stat.27(1866).InlightofBlackstonesunderstandingandthecontextoftheblackcodes,anylawsregardingtheabilitytokeeporbeararmswouldpresumablybe laws...forthesecurityofpersonandpropertyandthereforewouldneedtobeequalforallcitizensregardlessofcolor. ` of$* XX*  *    420    _ԀActofMar.2,1867,6,14Stat.485,487.ThePresidentdidinformtheHousethathewassigning  under protestbecausethisprovision,andanothertowhichheobjected,wereincludedinanessentialappropriationbill.SeeLettertotheHouseofRepresentatives(Mar.2,1867),reprintedin8MessagesandPapers < at3670.Regardingthemilitiaprovision,heobjectedthatit deniestotenStatesofthisUniontheirconstitutionalrighttoprotectthemselvesinanyemergencybymeansoftheirownmilitia.ItmaybethatinhisconstitutionalobjectionhehadinmindArticleI,Section10simplicitrecognitionoftheprerogativeofStatestodefendthemselveswiththeirmilitiasincasesofinvasionorimminentdanger.SeePartII.D.2above(discussingwaysin T  whichoriginalConstitutionrecognizesthatStateswillhaveandbeabletousemilitias).  of$* XX*  *    4    _ԀSee,e.g.,UnitedStatesv.Parker,362F.3d1279,1283(10thCir.2004). of$* XX*  *    125    _Ԁ1DebateontheConst.at71112. > of$* XX*  *    50    _Ԁ4Blackstoneat*182.ThequalificationtowhichBlackstonerefersisawealthrequirementtiedtothe  gamelaws,seeid.at*17475,whichwediscussinPart_III.A_,below,andelsewhere.RegardingBlackstones v influenceandauthority,see,e.g.,Madison,NotesofDebatesat547(remarksof_Dickenson_,Aug.29);Federalist < No.69,at465n.*(A.Hamilton)&No.84,at577(Hamilton);Malcolm,ToKeepandBearat130L  *;Schickv.United R States,195U.S.65,69(1904).#*  L#L  *ԀEdmundBurkeinformedParliamentthat theyhavesoldnearlyasmanyof  BlackstonesCommentariesinAmericaasinEngland.SpeechconcerningResolutionsforConciliationwiththeColonies(Mar.22,1775#*  Lҍ#L  *),inEdmundBurke,PreRevolutionaryWritings206,225(IanHarrised.,1993). m of$* XX*  *    58    _ԀSeeid.(defining bearasto carryasaburden, conveyorcarry, carryasamarkofauthority  (suchasasword), carryasamarkofdistinction(suchasto beararmsinacoat),and carryasinshow); v Webster,AmericanDictionary(_unpaginated_)(defining bearasto support, sustain, carry, convey, <  supportandremovefromplacetoplace, wear,and bearasamarkofauthorityordistinction;as,tobeara R sword,abadge,aname;tobeararmsinacoat).  of$* XX*  *    421    _ԀTheSenatedebateissummarizedfromtheCongressionalGlobein_Halbrook_,Freedmenat6869. L of$* XX*  *    18    _Ԁ*  *Id.ThesamegroundappearstohavebeenavailableinCases.#*  *#SeeCases,131F.2dat919n.1.  $ XX      105    _ԀSee_Kopel_,supranote2,at1355( [_O]ne_ԀofthereasonsCongressguaranteedtherightofthepeopleto  keepandbeararmswassothatapopularmilitiacouldbedrawnfromthebodyofthepeople.)  Ԁ 0 of$* XX*  *    251    _ԀTheNinthCircuitin_Silveira_didnotmentionthislattersetofproposals,andthecourtpresentedthe  commentsintheratificationdebatesmostrelevanttotheseseparateproposalsasiftheyinsteadrelatedtotheSecondAmendment.See312F.3dat108283;seealsoid.at1078(claimingwithoutcitationthat [_t]he_ < compromisethattheconventioneventuallyreached,whichgrantedthefederalgovernmentthedominantcontroloverthenationaldefense,ledultimatelytotheenactmentofthecounterbalancingSecondAmendment).  $ XX      105    _ԀSee_Kopel_,supranote2,at1355( [_O]ne_ԀofthereasonsCongressguaranteedtherightofthepeopleto  keepandbeararmswassothatapopularmilitiacouldbedrawnfromthebodyofthepeople.)  Ԁ T of$* XX*  *    203    _Ԁ3LegalPapersofJohnAdams24748(L._Kinvin_ԀWroth&_Hiller_ԀB._Zobel_Ԁ_eds_.,1965)(quoting   Hawkinsp.71,14).Forthefacts,seeid.at1(note).Adamssecuredseveralacquittals.Id.at29.L  *Ԁ#*  L# of$* XX*  *    35    _Ԁ312F.3dat106087.  of$* XX*  *    73    _Ԁ1Blackstoneat*5960.See_Crespigny_v._Wittenoom_,100Eng.Rep.1304,1305,4TermRep.791  (_K.B._Ԁ1792)(_Buller_,J.)( Iagreethatthepreamblecannot_controul_Ԁtheenactingpartofastatute,whichisexpressedinclearandunambiguousterms.Butifanydoubtariseonthewordsoftheenactingpart,thepreamblemayberesortedto,toexplainit.);id.at1306(_Grose_,J.)( Thoughthepreamblecannot_controul_Ԁtheenactingclause,we R maycompareitwiththerestoftheAct,inordertocollecttheintentionoftheLegislature.) .  of$* XX*  *    132    _ԀSeeVan_Alstyne_,43Duke_L.J._ԀL  *at1243(TheSecondAmendment lookstoanultimaterelianceonthe  commoncitizenwhohasarighttokeepandbeararms...asanessentialsourceofsecurity[for]afreestate.);see v also#*  L#Lund,L  *31Ga.L.Rev.#*  L=#Ԁat24L  *.#*  Lғ# B of$* XX*  *    80    _ԀMass.Const.pt.I,21(1780),reprintedin3Fed.andState_Consts_.at1892;N.H.Const.art.I,30  (1784),reprintedin4Fed.andState_Consts_.at2457;_Vt_.Const.ch.I,16(1786),reprintedin6Fed.andState v Consts.at3753.  of$* XX*  *    20    _Ԁ131F.2dat266.ThecourtcitedsomehistoryfromtheFoundingEra,whichweaddressinPartIII.C.1.  of$* XX*  *    422    _ԀSeeid.at69( Astonishingly,whilestillwaivingthebloodyshirtanddeprivingSouthernersof  suffrage,RepublicanswereunwillingtodenytherighttohavearmstoexConfederates.);NelsonLund,BookReview,OutsiderVoicesonGunsandtheConstitution,17Const.Comm.701,713(2000)(reviewing_Halbrook_) < ( ThisincidentperfectlyillustrateswhytheSecondAmendmenthadbeenadoptedinthefirstplace.). e of$* XX*  *    432    _ԀSeePresserv.Illinois,116U.S.252,26465(1886);seealsoUnitedStatesv._Cruikshank_,92U.S.542,  553(1876);Loganv.UnitedStates,144U.S.263,28687(1892);Maxwellv.Dow,176U.S.581,597(1900).As v notedaboveinPartI,thefederalGovernmentdidnotregulateprivatefirearmsuntil1934. % of$* XX*  *    75    _ԀJosephStory,1CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates459460,at44344(1833;  reprint1991). of$* XX*  *    434    _Ԁ83P.619,620(_Kan_.1905).  $ XX      105    _ԀSee_Kopel_,supranote2,at1355( [_O]ne_ԀofthereasonsCongressguaranteedtherightofthepeopleto  keepandbeararmswassothatapopularmilitiacouldbedrawnfromthebodyofthepeople.)  Ԁ  of$* XX*  *    77    _ԀSeeU.S.TermLimits,Inc.v.Thornton,514U.S.779,821n.31,838(1995);id.at846&n.1(Thomas,  J.,dissenting);seealso_Stenberg_v._Carhart_,530U.S.914,953(2000)(Scalia,J.,dissenting).  of$* XX*  *    187    _ԀSeealso4id.at*5558(elsewheredescribingprohibitionsagainstcertainRomanCatholicskeeping  armsashopefullytemporarysuspensionsofrights).HesummarizedthemilitiainChapter13,1id.at*41213. of$* XX*  *    311    _ԀSchwartz,2BillofRightsat1152(Sen.Journal).  of$* XX*  *    14    _ԀLater*  *ԀopinionsoftheSupremeCourtappeartoaccepttheindividualrightview,atleastindicta,  althoughnoneis_dispositive_.#*  *#*  *ԀInJohnsonv._Eisentrager_,#*  *#339U.S.763(1950),*  *theCourtrejectedaclaimthatthe v FifthAmendmentscriminalprocedureprotectionsappliedtononresidentenemyaliensbypointingout,amongotherthings,thatacontraryviewwouldrequirealsoapplyingthe companioncivilrightsAmendmentsintheBillofRi